Theft and Contemporary Trait Theory in Criminology Explained
Many theories have been developed to explain criminal behavior. While some theories are not as common, others have evolved and are used in many criminal studies today. Modern criminologists combine the most germane aspects of sociology, psychology, anthropology, and biological theories to advance their understanding of criminal behavior.
NRS 205.0832 Actions which constitute theft.
1. Except as otherwise provided in subsection 2, a person commits theft if, without lawful authority, the person knowingly:
(a) Controls any property of another person with the intent to deprive that person of the property.
(b) Converts, makes an unauthorized transfer of an interest in, or without authorization controls any property of another person, or uses the services or property of another person entrusted to him or her or placed in his or her possession for a limited, authorized period of determined or prescribed duration or
for a limited use.
(c) Obtains real, personal or intangible property or the services of another person by a material misrepresentation with intent to deprive that person of the property or services. As used in this paragraph, “material misrepresentation” means the use of any pretense, or the making of any promise, representation or statement of present, past or future fact which is fraudulent and which, when used or made, is instrumental in causing the wrongful control or transfer of property or services. The pretense may be verbal or it may be a physical act.
(d) Comes into control of lost, mislaid or misdelivered property of another person under circumstances providing means of inquiry as to the true owner and appropriates that property to his or her own use or that of another person without reasonable efforts to notify the true owner.
(e) Controls property of another person knowing or having reason to know that the property was stolen.
(f) Obtains services, including, without limitation, audio or visual services, or parts, products or other items related to such services which the person knows or, in the case of audio or visual services, should have known are available only for compensation without paying or agreeing to pay compensation or diverts the services of another person to his or her own benefit or that of another person without lawful authority to do so.
(g) Takes, destroys, conceals or disposes of property in which another person has a security interest, with intent to defraud that person.
(h) Commits any act that is declared to be theft by a specific statute.
(i) Draws or passes a check, and in exchange obtains property or services, if the person knows that the check will not be paid when presented.
(j) Obtains gasoline or other fuel or automotive products which are available only for compensation without paying or agreeing to pay compensation.
2. A person who commits an act that is prohibited by subsection 1 which involves the repair of a vehicle has not committed theft unless, before the repair was made, the person received a written estimate of the cost of the repair.
(Added to NRS by 1989, 1204; A 1999, 2706; 2001, 3024; 2013, 823)
1. Except as otherwise provided in subsection 2, a person commits theft if, without lawful authority, the person knowingly:
(a) Controls any property of another person with the intent to deprive that person of the property.
(b) Converts, makes an unauthorized transfer of an interest in, or without authorization controls any property of another person, or uses the services or property of another person entrusted to him or her or placed in his or her possession for a limited, authorized period of determined or prescribed duration or
for a limited use.
(c) Obtains real, personal or intangible property or the services of another person by a material misrepresentation with intent to deprive that person of the property or services. As used in this paragraph, “material misrepresentation” means the use of any pretense, or the making of any promise, representation or statement of present, past or future fact which is fraudulent and which, when used or made, is instrumental in causing the wrongful control or transfer of property or services. The pretense may be verbal or it may be a physical act.
(d) Comes into control of lost, mislaid or misdelivered property of another person under circumstances providing means of inquiry as to the true owner and appropriates that property to his or her own use or that of another person without reasonable efforts to notify the true owner.
(e) Controls property of another person knowing or having reason to know that the property was stolen.
(f) Obtains services, including, without limitation, audio or visual services, or parts, products or other items related to such services which the person knows or, in the case of audio or visual services, should have known are available only for compensation without paying or agreeing to pay compensation or diverts the services of another person to his or her own benefit or that of another person without lawful authority to do so.
(g) Takes, destroys, conceals or disposes of property in which another person has a security interest, with intent to defraud that person.
(h) Commits any act that is declared to be theft by a specific statute.
(i) Draws or passes a check, and in exchange obtains property or services, if the person knows that the check will not be paid when presented.
(j) Obtains gasoline or other fuel or automotive products which are available only for compensation without paying or agreeing to pay compensation.
2. A person who commits an act that is prohibited by subsection 1 which involves the repair of a vehicle has not committed theft unless, before the repair was made, the person received a written estimate of the cost of the repair.
(Added to NRS by 1989, 1204; A 1999, 2706; 2001, 3024; 2013, 823)
For more information regarding theft in Nevada, click on the link below.
Contemporary Trait Theory in Criminology (focus on biological factors)
Contemporary Trait theory of criminology says that certain personality traits make people more likely to become criminals. Personality traits are influenced by both nature, or biological and genetic factors, and nurture, or environmental factors. It argues that behavior is the result of abnormal physical or biological traits.
- Someone might be born with the traits
- Traits might be the result of chemical changes occurring in the brain or body later in life
According to this theory, the biochemical factors that can affect an individual’s behavior include:
Approaching criminology from a biological perspective and understanding the traits that might influence criminal behavior is important because these traits may play a key role in profiling criminals and identifying suspects.
- Diet
- Hypoglycemia
- Hormonal factors (such as androgen or testosterone)
- Lead exposure/Environmental contaminants
Approaching criminology from a biological perspective and understanding the traits that might influence criminal behavior is important because these traits may play a key role in profiling criminals and identifying suspects.
Diet
There have definitely been some clear links found between diet and hyperactivity, with the main culprits being sugar, processed, and refined foods. These specific foods create unpleasant behavioral effects, highlighting an important connection between food and characteristics of criminal behavior.
High-protein foods, such as fish, eggs, meat, and many dairy products, contain high levels of the amino acid tryptophan. Tryptophan produces serotonin. Another amino acid, tyrosine (also found in high-protein foods), is related to the production of both dopamine and norepinephrine. These relationships have suggested that many aggressive behaviors may be controlled with a diet higher in protein and lower in refined carbohydrates.
In one study, 68 prisoners were selected to have their diet modified. They were unaware they were taking part in a trial and the diet was altered in secret. Without them knowing, all refined sugar was removed and their behavior was assessed in the following weeks. There was an 80% reduction in experienced behavioral problems.
High-protein foods, such as fish, eggs, meat, and many dairy products, contain high levels of the amino acid tryptophan. Tryptophan produces serotonin. Another amino acid, tyrosine (also found in high-protein foods), is related to the production of both dopamine and norepinephrine. These relationships have suggested that many aggressive behaviors may be controlled with a diet higher in protein and lower in refined carbohydrates.
In one study, 68 prisoners were selected to have their diet modified. They were unaware they were taking part in a trial and the diet was altered in secret. Without them knowing, all refined sugar was removed and their behavior was assessed in the following weeks. There was an 80% reduction in experienced behavioral problems.
- As with all scientific experiments, people were slightly suspicious of these results and wanted to know whether any of it was relevant to the world outside prisons. To check this out, about 470 children from a school in America were recruited for a study. This was a placebo-controlled trial; some were given a daily nutritional supplement and some were given a daily placebo. Results confirmed what scientists had already shown--nutrition was relevant to behavior. The children taking a nutritional supplement showed a 47% decrease in the rate of anti-social behavior compared to those taking the placebos. This behavior covered eight different categories including things like fighting and threats, vandalism, disorderly conduct, and refusal to do school work.
Hypoglycemia
The state of having chronically reduced blood sugar caused by the excessive production of insulin is called hypoglycemia. Individuals who are hypoglycemic experience increased levels of irritability, aggression, and difficulty in controlling their emotional expressions. Hypoglycemia has successfully been used to mitigate criminal behavior.
There have also been connections between low-blood sugar levels, anti-social behaviors, and delinquency. Excessively low levels of blood sugar (hypoglycemia) can cause the development of negative behavior, nervous behavior, mental confusion, physical weakness, delirium and violence. Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause hypoglycemia and increase aggressive behavior.
There have also been connections between low-blood sugar levels, anti-social behaviors, and delinquency. Excessively low levels of blood sugar (hypoglycemia) can cause the development of negative behavior, nervous behavior, mental confusion, physical weakness, delirium and violence. Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause hypoglycemia and increase aggressive behavior.
Hormonal Factors
One explanation for criminal behavior involves the body’s hormones, released by some of the body’s cells or organs to regulate activity in other cells or organs. Androgens are hormones associated with masculine traits, and estrogens are associated with feminine traits. Progesterone is another hormone associated primarily with female reproductive processes, such as pregnancy and menstruation.
Testosterone
Testosterone is considered the male sex hormone. Although persons of both sexes secrete testosterone, males secrete it in higher levels. Researchers have found that higher levels of this hormone are associated with increased levels of violence and aggression, both in males and females.
Recent research has added an evolutionary component. In his evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory, a researcher named Ellis argued that increased levels of testosterone reduce the brain’s sensitivity to environmental stimuli, making a person act out, with reduced abilities to control emotions.
Scholars who study the relationship between testosterone levels and crime cite as support the differences between males and females in terms of levels of crime in general and levels of violence in particular. This work has led to the “treatment” of male sex offenders with chemical derivatives from progesterone to reduce male sexual urges through the introduction of female hormones (e.g., Depo-Provera, a brand of birth control for women). This has been effective in reducing some types of sex offenses (e.g., pedophilia, exhibitionism), but it has had little or no impact on other crimes or violence.
Recent research has added an evolutionary component. In his evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory, a researcher named Ellis argued that increased levels of testosterone reduce the brain’s sensitivity to environmental stimuli, making a person act out, with reduced abilities to control emotions.
Scholars who study the relationship between testosterone levels and crime cite as support the differences between males and females in terms of levels of crime in general and levels of violence in particular. This work has led to the “treatment” of male sex offenders with chemical derivatives from progesterone to reduce male sexual urges through the introduction of female hormones (e.g., Depo-Provera, a brand of birth control for women). This has been effective in reducing some types of sex offenses (e.g., pedophilia, exhibitionism), but it has had little or no impact on other crimes or violence.
Premenstrual Syndrome and Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder
Researchers also have investigated the impact of female hormones on behavior in women, beginning with two English cases in 1980 in which two women used premenstrual syndrome (PMS) as a mitigating factor in violent offenses. These efforts led to female defendants in the United States being able to argue reduced culpability due to PMS.
More recently, a more severe form of PMS has been identified. Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) is a severe and debilitating form of PMS, distinguished by the level of interference the menstrual process has on the ability of the woman to engage in the functions of everyday life. Interestingly, researchers have established a genetic link to the development of PMDD. Women with a certain genetic structure have increased (abnormal) sensitivity to their own normal hormones, resulting in increased symptoms of emotional and physical stress.
Another phenomenon associated with female hormones is postpartum depression syndrome. Although most new mothers experience symptoms of depression in the weeks or months following birth, which is primarily thought to be due to a decrease in progesterone, approximately 1% to 2% of these mothers exhibit severe symptoms, such as hallucinations, suicidal or homicidal thoughts, mental confusion, and panic attacks. As with PMS and PMDD, postpartum depression syndrome has successfully been used as a mitigating factor in the legal defense of women accused of crimes while suffering from its effects. Both PMS and PMDD, however, are controversial concepts, difficult to diagnose as medical conditions, and argued by some to be social constructions and psychiatric problems instead of medical conditions.
More recently, a more severe form of PMS has been identified. Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) is a severe and debilitating form of PMS, distinguished by the level of interference the menstrual process has on the ability of the woman to engage in the functions of everyday life. Interestingly, researchers have established a genetic link to the development of PMDD. Women with a certain genetic structure have increased (abnormal) sensitivity to their own normal hormones, resulting in increased symptoms of emotional and physical stress.
Another phenomenon associated with female hormones is postpartum depression syndrome. Although most new mothers experience symptoms of depression in the weeks or months following birth, which is primarily thought to be due to a decrease in progesterone, approximately 1% to 2% of these mothers exhibit severe symptoms, such as hallucinations, suicidal or homicidal thoughts, mental confusion, and panic attacks. As with PMS and PMDD, postpartum depression syndrome has successfully been used as a mitigating factor in the legal defense of women accused of crimes while suffering from its effects. Both PMS and PMDD, however, are controversial concepts, difficult to diagnose as medical conditions, and argued by some to be social constructions and psychiatric problems instead of medical conditions.
Lead Exposure/Environmental Contaminants
For those who had been exposed to lead as toddlers, even in small amounts, brain scans revealed changes that were subtle, permanent and devastating. The toxic metal had robbed them of gray matter in the parts of the brain that enable people to pay attention, regulate emotions and control impulses. Lead also had scrambled the production of white matter that transmits signals between different parts of the brain, largely by mimicking calcium, an element that plays a critical role in brain development.
Lead exposure is also linked to production of the brain's white matter—primarily a substance called myelin, which forms an insulating sheath around the connections between neurons. Lead exposure degrades both the formation and structure of myelin, and when this happens, the neurons are not communicating effectively.
The frontal lobe of the brain, an area that has become the focus of biological investigations into criminal behavior, is particularly sensitive to environmental toxins, such as lead and manganese. Behavioral difficulties, such as hyperactivity, impulsivity, aggression, and lack of self-control, have been associated with increased levels of these heavy metals.
Examination of the impact of environmental toxins on human behavior is very promising because it integrates biological with sociological and criminological theories. Facilities that produce, store, treat, and dispose of hazardous wastes are largely to blame for the production of environmental toxins. Research has shown that proximity to these types of facilities increases the impairment of the brain and of the general central nervous system, producing lower IQs; reductions in learning abilities, frustration tolerance, and self-control; and increases in impulsivity, hyperactivity, antisocial behaviors, violence, and crime.
Researchers who study the relationship of environmental toxins to crime argue that our environment is producing crime by producing neurological damage. Scholars emphasize the fact that minority populations and lower-income groups are the ones most likely to live near these facilities and as a result are more likely than white and higher-income groups to be negatively impacted by these toxins. This, according to the researchers, may help explain why minorities and people from the lower classes seem to catch the attention of the criminal justice system in higher rates than others.
Lead exposure is also linked to production of the brain's white matter—primarily a substance called myelin, which forms an insulating sheath around the connections between neurons. Lead exposure degrades both the formation and structure of myelin, and when this happens, the neurons are not communicating effectively.
The frontal lobe of the brain, an area that has become the focus of biological investigations into criminal behavior, is particularly sensitive to environmental toxins, such as lead and manganese. Behavioral difficulties, such as hyperactivity, impulsivity, aggression, and lack of self-control, have been associated with increased levels of these heavy metals.
Examination of the impact of environmental toxins on human behavior is very promising because it integrates biological with sociological and criminological theories. Facilities that produce, store, treat, and dispose of hazardous wastes are largely to blame for the production of environmental toxins. Research has shown that proximity to these types of facilities increases the impairment of the brain and of the general central nervous system, producing lower IQs; reductions in learning abilities, frustration tolerance, and self-control; and increases in impulsivity, hyperactivity, antisocial behaviors, violence, and crime.
Researchers who study the relationship of environmental toxins to crime argue that our environment is producing crime by producing neurological damage. Scholars emphasize the fact that minority populations and lower-income groups are the ones most likely to live near these facilities and as a result are more likely than white and higher-income groups to be negatively impacted by these toxins. This, according to the researchers, may help explain why minorities and people from the lower classes seem to catch the attention of the criminal justice system in higher rates than others.
How would these biochemical factors contribute to theft?
Each one of these biochemical factors are connected to criminal activity. It would not be unreasonable to say that each one of these factors can contribute to someone committing theft. Poor diet, low blood sugar, hormonal changes, and environmental contaminants can affect a persons behaviors, emotions, and self control.
Biochemical Treatments
The biochemical aspect of the body includes digestion, immune function, blood and hormone chemistry, organ and tissue physiology, hydration and pH levels, toxicity levels, and nutrition. Dietary changes should be used to balance the body's supply of specific nutrients that may be out of balance due to diet, functional physiological imbalances, or individual reactions to stress. Biochemical treatments can ultimately help reduce negative behavior that are caused by biochemical factors.
The biochemical aspect of the body includes digestion, immune function, blood and hormone chemistry, organ and tissue physiology, hydration and pH levels, toxicity levels, and nutrition. Dietary changes should be used to balance the body's supply of specific nutrients that may be out of balance due to diet, functional physiological imbalances, or individual reactions to stress. Biochemical treatments can ultimately help reduce negative behavior that are caused by biochemical factors.